Education Before And After French Revolution History Essay

Education out front And subsequently cut Revolution History EsenunciateThe french diversity enabled a major shift in the history of modern France, and it compensate affected the rest of the European communities. Indeed, such great incidents like the french novelty would change a lot in the dusts of France, regarding to the disciplineal system which was highly effected, In order to talk about the effect of the French gyration over the grooming in France, the some(prenominal)ize of the French teaching before the revolution must be well understood. I believe, The French revolution gave the reading in France a great chance to give out developing and spreading.The cultureal facilities before the French revolution and under the Ancien govern workforcet were in a better identify than any other European country. France had witnessed an improvement in the educational activities cased by the Renaissance, and that was in the put of the 16th century. But yet the educational institutions were badly distributed, and needed to be reformed. Although France had witness a lot of religious conflicts, which concluded with the country cosmos taken over effectively by the Catholic domination. We can say that the governing involvement in the matters of education was not that great and the Catholic church had the huge part of taking avow over the educational system. According to La Chalotais, in general, the Kings disposal left all matters pertaining to education in the hand of local bishop and the religious orders(1971). In spite of the particular that the educational system was directly or indirectly under the control of the Church, but we can not pass by and not honor that the state has show concerns about the education in France in umpteen ways, for example, in 1698 a decree was issued that children from the age of seven were to be obligate to attend Catholic naturalises up to the age of fourteen. One significant educational development was the change of the scholars language from Latin to French. Reaching the period scarce before the revolution, the idea of a general education started to develop in France.Since that, during the French revolution (1789-1799) The state of the country was not stable at all, most people would think that the education is the last thing French people would think about in such crises, but the truth was that the leaders of the revolution had the education in their priorities. And in the early stages of the revolution there was a lot of concerns about the revolution, but few institutional actions. Still, by 1789 the level of development of the French system of education was scarce for its time. Enrolment in elementary schools was relatively high and 562 standby schools boasted 74,747 student, 40,000 of whom had scholarships(4). It is genuine that the destructive component of the revolution has effected the education, but the only invoice was because what ever was before the revolution has to go. B ut it is fair to say that the revolutionaries likewise looked at the state of the education from many aspects, like the duties and prerogatives of the state, the rights of parents, the potential benefits of high education, the economic needs of the nation, the necessity for training teachers, and the suitable status of the training profession in a re familiar(5). The first changes retrace to the French lodge were basically related to religion. It can be said that the revaluation precious to change any thing related to the old system, including the great position that was occupied by the church. In fact , as the revolutionaries were destroying the statues that presented the church at Notre Dame, they were removing every influence made by the church in the education system. What was really weird and in the same time interesting, is that the leaders of the revolution were willing to change almost anything related to the old system just the idea of educating women. Actually most o f the revolution leaders believed that only men should have the right of education because they will engaged in the state affairs. And women do not need education because their role was to take share of the family and the raise children. By 1794 a kind of a normal lifespan was founded, and that was a result of the execution of Robespierre. This kind of normal life gave the political science the chance to give attention to the education reform. A decree soon followed, that the number one important thing regarding the education was the training of teachers. And the computer program of the schools contains republican morality and the public and buck private virtues, as well as the techniques of teaching reading, writing, arithmetic, practical geometry, French history and grammar and books must be utilise and not any books but the ones which is described in the Convention.(1) One much thing the revolutionaries wanted to make sure to change was the spoken language, as there were a great many different languages and dialects were spoken. The Revolutionary governing body left the part of guiding citizens to one language to schools.(6)According to Vignery, although the centenarian Regime system creased to exist, some schools on all levels survived the onslaughts of the Revolution.(5) These schools called private schools. Baileys historic study of the French colleges shows clearly that they survived the revolutions radical stages by adapting to their changing surroundings and mobilizing the resources they had inherited from the Old Regime.(4) Larger and wealthier schools were more likely to remain dedicate . in 1798 the government tried to take over the control on these schools but no much success was established, but in 1799 the government managed to control private schools in some regions. And in an attempt of the government to have a competitive advantage over any private school, the government had a condition that if some one want to drum a position with the government to apply an evidence that he had went to a Republic school.(1)As oboist of some might expect, the state of French public education especially the one of central schools, was weak. Number of flows was there, for example the neediness of efficient teachers and more substantial the lack of efficient students as well. Actually, the schools of capital of France and other areas with high rate of population did very well, but in the rest of the country things was not as good as they should be. other serious problem was that requires of a graduate from a central school was not really reasonable at all times, either academician or curricular. Lastly, we can say that the central schools did not reach the goals it was made to establish. And it needed some one great to help reaching these goals.After the revolution, and under the new system Napoleon toke over most of the power. And in 1804, Napoleon became the Emperor of France and had the ultimate control over the government . Napoleon managed to make France the most powerful country of Europe and that was by making a lot of changes in the system of the country. Napoleon always believed in education and had it in its priorities, and he also believed in efficient kind of education and for this to come true, education in France must spread majorly especially regarding the secondary level.There was number of problems that the French people complained about, like the lack of schools in several areas plus the lack of efficiency in the teaching faculty, not to recognition the lack of commitment to attend among students and in some areas the lack of religious kind of education.(1)

Four basic characteristics of a successful strategy

Four basic characteristics of a successful scheme2.1.1 What is outline?So, what is schema? Or, better, what it is non? According to Grant (2005) schema is non a detailed final cause or program of instructions it is a unifying theme that gives coherence and direction to the actions and decisions of an single(a) or an organization. Furtherto a greater extent, in that location be four basic characteristics of a successful dodging goals that argon simple, consistent and long precondition profound catch of the militant milieu objective appraisal of the resources and, effective implementation.Other definitions of strategy overwhelm the mark of the long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals (Chandler, 1962), the regulation of objectives, purposes, or goals and the major policies and plans for achieving these goals, stated in such a trend as to define what avocation the company is in or is to be in and the kind of company it is to be (Andrews, 1971), the match an organization dissembles in the midst of its internal resources and skills and the opportunities and risks created by its extraneous environment (Hofer and Schendel, 1978), the pattern or plan that integrates an organizations major goals, policies and action sequence into a cohesive whole (Quinn, 1980).To simplify things we could say that strategy is when a firm assesses its internal organization and external environment, sets its goals and objectives, and designs the action plan to accomplish them.2.1.2 A Brief Presentation of roughly Strategic ConceptsThe concepts and theories of business strategy d experience their antecedents in military strategy. The term strategy derives from the Greek word strategia, meaning generalship, itself formed from stratos, meaning soldiers and -ag, to lead. Anformer(a) early contri yetor to the forming of the concept of strategy is the C hinese temperateness Tzu ( slightly 500 B.C.) with his classic piece of work The Art of War, which is regarded as the premier thesis on strategy.In modern times, the field of business strategy has largely been shaped around a simulation offset conceived by Andrews (1971) in his classic book The Concept of Corporate strategy. As weve seen above, Andrews see strategy as the match among what a company set upnister do on integrity hand (organizational strengths and weaknesses) indoors the universe of what it mightiness do on the other hand (environmental opportunities and threats). This is how the famous concept of study (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) has emerged. This concept is examined further in the fol brokening chapter.Although the power of the get up framework was recognized from the outset, managers were given very hardly a(prenominal) insights about how to assess all side of the equation systematically. The first crucial break done came from Porter (1980) in his book Competitive system Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors where he introduced the concept of the five forces lay. This poser counseles on the external side of the SWOT strategic balancing act, helping firms to understand those forces in an industry that give rise to opportunities and threats. In this framework, strategy operates a matter of choosing an appropriate industry and positioning the firm in that industry jibe to a generic strategy of either low cost or production polariation. Again, this concept is examined further in the adjacent chapter.Fig. 2.1(1) The Five Competitive Forces PorterThese theories give birth been criticized mainly because they do not help forkicular firms to identify and leverage unique and therefore sustainable wagess. Further more(prenominal), studies withdraw shown that internal characteristics of particular firms deep down an industry arsehole make a difference in footing of profit performance. Based on these experiences, a unseasoned perspective, known as the capabilities approaches, which is focused on the internal, constitutional part of the SWOT equation, has emerged. Based on this possibleness, firms ar exhorted to compete based on their unique or distinctive capabilities, competences and resources. These approaches assume that the roots of competitive advantage lie at bottom the organization and that the adoption of new strategies is constrained by the current direct of companys resources. In this framework, external environment received shortsighted (if any) attention.Finally, another approach which tries to bridge the ii parts (internal organizational portion and external environment) and fulfill the promise of Andrews framework is the resource based batch. same the capabilities approaches, the resource based view ac acquaintances the importance of company specific resources and competences, up to now it does so in the context of the competitive env ironment. It sees capabilities and resources as the heart of a companys competitive position, subject to the interplay of three fundamental grocery store forces demand (does it suffer customers needs and is it competitively superior?), scarcity (is it imitable or substitutable, and is it durable?) and appropriability (who owns the dough?).2.1.3 Towards a familiarity Strategy object lessonStrategic charge models clear traditionally defined the firms strategy in wrong of its product / commercialize positioning (the products it makes and the grocerys it serves). The resource based approach, however, prescribes that firms position themselves strategically, based on their resources and capabilities choicely than on the products and services derived from those capabilities. Resources and capabilities, especially organizational skills and practices learned over time, rump become highly unique to a particular firm and tough to imitate by others. Therefore, competitive advanta ge based on these resources and capabilities is potentially much more sustainable than that based on product and market positioning. Products and markets may come and go, but the firms capabilities are more enduring. Creating a strategy based on unique resources and capabilities provides a more long-term view of strategy than the traditional approach, and one, which is more robust in todays uncertain and propulsive competitive environment.In modern business, friendship is be considered the closely important strategic resource, and the ability to create and apply it the most important power for building and sustaining competitive advantage. The firm that knows more about its customers, products, technologies, markets and their linkages, performs better. This view is leading to a further development in the resource based theory called the noesis based view of the firm. The firm is seen primarily as a vehicle for creating, integrating, storing and applying association. Firms embracing the association based view of the world see many difficult questions to answer in formulating their familiarity strategy. If we update the pilot model of strategy to reflect todays experience intensive environment, intimacy strategy becomes the mode in which the firm balances its companionship resources and experience butt againsting capabilities with the cognition inevitable to create its products for its markets in a manner superior to its competitors. In essence, firms need to perform a knowledge based SWOT analysis.Identifying which knowledge is a unique and precious resource, which knowledge processes represent unique and valuable capabilities, and how those resources and capabilities support the firms product and market positions, are the essential elements of a knowledge strategy. The firm must identify what it has to know for a given product / market position. Every firm requires both(prenominal) level of knowledge about its engineering, markets, pr oducts, customers and industry merely to participate and hold its own in its industry. The strategic choices that companies make regarding these factors directly influence what the firm and its members must know to effectively compete. Furthermore, these choices all set the stage for the development of future knowledge with the processes of encyclopedism and innovation.Conversely, the firm, given what it knows, must identify the surpass product and market opportunities for exploiting that knowledge. The creation of unique, strategic knowledge takes time, forcing the firm to balance short and long-term strategic resources decisions. The firm must therefore determine whether its efforts are best focused on knowledge creation, exploitation, or both, and then balance its knowledge processing resources and efforts accordingly.Other critical issues in knowledge strategy include organizational learning (the ability of an organization to learn, accumulate knowledge from its experiences, and reapply that knowledge is itself a skill or competence that can provide strategic advantage), the competition (the firm must assess the knowledge resources and capabilities required by its industry merely to play the game, those required to be competitive and those required to be uniquely innovative) and how easily the firms knowledge can be imitated (on the one hand, knowledge must be make explicit and transferable to piece of ground it among the firm, while, on the other hand, once made explicit it is subject to creation appropriated by other firms, reducing or eliminating its competitive value).2.1.4 noesis StrategiesIt has become clear, especially during the last few years, that the term Knowledge heed (KM) has been apply to a very broad spectrum of activities designed to manage, ex pitch and create or enhance intellectual assets within an organization. In other words, there is no widespread agreement on what KM actually is. For example, information engineering scienc e applications that are using the term knowledge prudence in their denomination range from the development of highly codify help desk systems to the provision of film conferencing to facilitate the exchange of ideas amidst people. The one fact that there does front to be agreement on is that diverse situations require diametric KM strategies. In this section we will examine a number of proposed antithetical KM strategies and consider how they can be classified. Then we will facial expression into a range of different driving forces behind the strategies and propose how we can select a suitable knowledge strategy.The main difference between the non-homogeneous approaches in knowledge strategy is that they emphasize different aspects of KM some focus on the knowledge (content), others on the business processes / states and some on the end results. (A) Knowledge MatrixOne of the most wide accepted and widely quoted approaches is that of the knowledge ground substance of No naka Takeuchi (see Figure 1.3-2 in chapter 1.3.1). This matrix classifies knowledge as explicit or tacit, and as either individual or collective. Nonaka Takeuchi to a fault propose corresponding knowledge processes that transform knowledge from one form to another socialisation (from tacit to tacit, whereby an individual acquires tacit knowledge directly from others through shared experience, observation, imitation and so on) externalisation (from tacit to explicit, through articulation of tacit knowledge into explicit concepts) conclave (from explicit to explicit, through a systematisation of concepts drawing on different bodies of explicit knowledge) and internalisation (from explicit to tacit, through a process of learning by doing and through a verbalisation and documentation of experiences). Nonaka Takeuchi model the process of geological formational knowledge creation as a spiral in which knowledge is amplified through these four modes of knowledge conversion. It is als o considered that knowledge becomes crystallized within the organisation at higher levels moving from the individual through the stem to organisational and even inter-organisational levels.(B) I-SpaceIn another easy-known application, Boisot proposes a model of knowledge asset development along similar lines to that of Nonaka and Takeuchi. In Boisots scheme, knowledge assets can be located within a three dimensional post (Information Space or I-Space) defined by three axes from uncodify to codified, from concrete to abstractedness and from undiffused to diffused. He then proposes a Social Learning Cycle (SLC) that uses the I-Space to model the dynamic flow of knowledge through a series of hexad phases 1. Scanning insights are gained from mostly available (diffused) data2. Codification Problem-Solving problems are solved giving structure and coherence to these insights (knowledge becomes codified)3. Abstraction the newly codified insights are generalised to a wide range of sit uations (knowledge becomes more abstract)4. public exposure the new insights are shared with a target population in a codified and abstract form (knowledge becomes diffused)5. Absorption the newly codified insights are applied to a variety of situations producing new learning experiences (knowledge is intent and produces learnt behaviour and so becomes uncodified, or tacit)6. Impacting abstract knowledge becomes embedded in concrete practices, for example in artefacts, rules or behaviour patterns (knowledge becomes concrete)Fig. 2.1(2). Boisots I-Space IIn his model, Boisot develops an elicit application of the laws of thermodynamics. This thermodynamic analogy points to the elusive and dynamic nature of knowledge. It seems that what is happening is a cycle in which data is filtered to produce meaningful information and this information is then abstracted and codified to produce reusable knowledge. As the knowledge is applied in diverse situations it produces new experiences in an uncodified form that produces the data for a new cycle of knowledge creation. (C) Wiig ModelMoving on to the business process side, one of the most widely accepted KM models is that of Wiig and the APQC (American Productivity and Quality Center). Wiig determine six uphill KM strategies in a study of organisations considered to be leading the authority in this area. The strategies reflect the different natures and strengths of the organisations involved Knowledge Strategy as Business StrategyA comprehensive, enterprise-wide approach to KM, where knowledge is seen frequently as the product Intellectual Asset Management StrategyFocuses on assets already within the company that can be more fully work or enhanced Personal Knowledge Asset Responsibility StrategyEncourage and support individual employees to develop their skills and knowledge as well as share their knowledge with each other Knowledge worldly concern StrategyEmphasises the innovation and creation of new knowledge thr ough RD. follow by market leaders who shape the future direction of their domain Knowledge give StrategyTransfer of knowledge and best practices in order to improve operational quality and efficiency Customer-Focused Knowledge StrategyAims to understand customers and their needs and so provide them with exactly what they want.(D) Day and Wendler of McKinsey social clubAlong the same lines, Day and Wendler of McKinsey Company, identified five knowledge strategies active by large corporations Developing and Transferring Best PracticesLike the Knowledge Transfer Strategy identified by Wiig and the APQC above, this strategy focuses on identifying best practices within an organisation and spreading them across a dispersed network of locations Creating a new industry from embedded knowledgeThis approach is to recognise that an organisation may have knowledge, which it can exploit in new ways. In particular, it may have built up knowledge about its customers, which reveals a gap in the market for a new product plastic Corporate Strategy around knowledgeThis strategy was identified from the experiences of Monsanto, which encompassed two very different business groups a chemicals group and a flavor sciences group. The chemicals group was focused on best practice while the intent sciences group was an innovation-based business. The knowledge strategies for these two groups were perceived to be so different that Monsanto decided to sell off the chemicals group and concentrate on the life sentence sciences business. This is an interesting example of the tensions between two very different KM strategies Fostering and Commercialising baseSimilar to the Knowledge worldly concern Strategy identified by Wiig and the APQC above, this strategy focuses on compriseing a competitive position by increased technological innovation and reduced time to market Creating a standard by releasing proprietary knowledgeThe cited example is Netscape who responded to the speedy de cline of its market share in the internet browser market by making its source code publicly available at no cost. The strategy is an example of the Intellectual Asset Management Strategy identified by Wiig and the APQC study. In this case, Netscape felt that it could capitalise on a key asset (its source code) by giving it away. In return, it hoped to establish its browser as a widely used standard (increased by the adaptation to new specialty areas) and gain indirectly, by securing its share of a complementary product, namely server software.(E) Three Value Disciplines (Treacy and Wiersema)Moving to the area of strategies based on the end results, we could refer to Treacy and Wiersema who proposed three value disciplines, as a way to focus an organisations activities. In this model, successful organizations concentrate their efforts on a particular area and excel at it, rather than arduous to be all things to all people and failing to excel at anything. The three areas are Custome r Intimacy Product Leadership operational ExcellenceThese value disciplines reflect the fact that value is determined as a trade-off between convenience, quality and price. It is the inherent tension between these three qualities of a product that makes it necessary for an organisation to focus on excelling at just one of them. There are a few organisations that have managed to become leaders in two disciplines, but they have done this by focusing on one area first before turning to a second one.At a simple level, there are three primary elements to any competitive business the business itself, its product(s) and its customers. Each of these components represents the focus of attention for one of the value disciplines. The focus is on the customers and their needs and desires when pursuing Customer Intimacy the focus is on the product(s) when pursuing Product Leadership and the focus is on the organisation itself and its spoken communication processes, when pursuing Operational E xcellence.Some organizations will concentrate on their kin with their customers (to increase customer satisfaction and retention by better understanding the customers needs and preferences). Other organisations will focus on their products (constantly developing new ideas and getting them to market quickly). The third group of organisations focus primarily on themselves and their internal processes (sharing best practices between different units, reducing costs and amend efficiency).(F) Zacks StrategyAnother approach to identifying what KM strategy to take is proposed by Zack. He proposes a framework which helps an organisation make an explicit society between its competitive situation and a knowledge management strategy to help the organisation maintain or (re-) establish its competitive advantage. He makes it clear that while each organisation will find its own unique link between knowledge and strategy, any such competitive knowledge can be classified on a shield of innovatio n relative to the rest of the particular industry as core, progress or innovative Core knowledge is a basic level of knowledge required by all members of a particular industry. It does not represent a competitive advantage, but is simply the knowledge needful to be able to function in that sector at all. good knowledge gives an organisation a competitive edge. It is specific knowledge that differentiates an organisation from its competitors, either by knowing more than a competitor or by applying knowledge in different ways. Innovative knowledge is that which enables a company to be a market leader. It allows an organisation to change the way a sector works and represents a significant differentiating factor from other organisations.Having identified the organisations competitive knowledge position, Zacks approach is to use a SWOT analysis to identify the strategic gaps in an organisations knowledge. This allows the organisation to identify where it has knowledge which it can exp loit and where it needs to develop knowledge to maintain or grow its competitive position. This is achieved by analysing the organisations knowledge position along two dimensions Exploration vs. ExploitationThis is the degree to which the organisation needs to increase its knowledge in a particular area vs. the opportunity it may have to leverage existing but under-exploited knowledge resources. Internal vs. External KnowledgeThis refers to whether the knowledge is primarily within the organisation or outside. Some organisations are more externally oriented, drawing on publications, universities, consultants, customers, etc. Others are more internally oriented, building up unique knowledge and experience, which is difficult for competitors to imitate. pose these two dimensions together, Zack describes organisations which are more exploitative of internal knowledge as having a Conservative KM Strategy while those that are more innovative (exploring external knowledge) have a more Agg ressive KM Strategy. However, he points out that a KM Strategy cannot be made without reference to competitors. Thus, some industries (where knowledge is changing more rapidly) tend to be characterized by more aggressive firms, while other industries are generally more conservative.SummaryGiven that the classifications by knowledge listed above (Nonaka Takeuchis knowledge matrix and Boisots I-Space model) focus on the process of knowledge transformation and that most real world processes operate on a continuum rather than a step transformation, it is perhaps not surprising to find that some researchers have suggested that explicit and tacit knowledge should be considered to be at the ends of a spectrum of knowledge types rather than being the only two categories on that spectrum. Beckman has suggested that understood knowledge is an intermediate category of knowledge that is tacit in form, but is accessible through querying and discussion. Nickols proposes that Nonaka Takeuchis c ategories should be further broken down according to whether they focus on declarative or procedural knowledge.What is needed is a classification that proposes a spectrum of knowledge management approaches. If this spectrum can accommodate the various approaches suggested previously, then it can be considered to be sufficiently comprehensive to be useful. Derek Binney provides a framework, the KM Spectrum, to help organisations make sense of the large assortment of material appearing under the heading of KM, and to help them assess where they are in KM terms. His focus is on the KM activities that are being carried out, grouped into six categories Transactional KM Knowledge is embedded in technology Analytical KM Knowledge is derived from external data sources, typically stress on customer-related information Asset Management KM Explicit management of knowledge assets (often created as a by-product of the business) which can be reused in different ways Process-based KM The codific ation and improvement of business practice and the sharing of these improved processes within the organisation Developmental KM twist up the capabilities of the organisations knowledge workers through training and staff development Innovation/creation KM Fostering an environment, which promotes the creation of new knowledge, for example through R D and through forming teams of people from different disciplines.Binneys analysis is interesting because it reflects aspects of both the knowledge-centred classification of KM and the business perspectives classification of KM. In terms of business perspectives, Binneys categories reflect activities that support particular perspectives for example, Asset Management KM matches Wiigs intellectual asset management strategy, while Innovation and Creation KM reflects Treacy Wiersemas product leadership strategy. Yet, Binneys categories also form a progression from the management of explicit knowledge at one end to tacit knowledge at the other . So, for example, Transactional KM involves codifying knowledge and embedding it in applications such as financial aid Desk Systems or Case Based Reasoning systems, while Innovation and Creation KM focuses on facilitating knowledge workers sharing and creating new knowledge which rests in a tacit form in their heads.For each element of the spectrum, Binney also lists a set of enabling technologies used to implement those kinds of KM Applications. This provides an alternative way to identify KM activity already being undertaken within an organisation, even if not previously perceived in KM terms (Table 1).Table 1 Enabling technologies mapped to the KM Spectrum (Binney, 2001)TransactionalAnalyticalAsset ManagementProcessDevelopmentalInnovation CreationExpert SystemsCognitive Technologiessemantic NetworksRule-based Expert SystemsProbability NetworksRule Induction Decision TreesGeospatial Information Systems adroit AgentsWeb CrawlersRelational and Object DBMSNeural Computing squeeze TechnologiesData Analysis and Reporting ToolsDocument Management ToolsSearch EnginesKnowledge MapsLibrary SystemsWorkflow ManagementProcess Modeling ToolsFinally, we should note that the a la mode(p) developments in the field suggest that the KM strategy in a modern, rapidly changing business environment should be dynamic, meaning it should change to follow the developments in the way the business functions or the competition is progressing in the industry. Scholars even go on to propose different KM strategies for different departments of the same organization.

Ebays Strategy Information System

Ebays schema Information establishmentE genuinely time, the digital engineering science is evolution. Electronic business (e-business) is 1 of digital economic that grows up. The bourne characterd to describe the randomness systems and applications that support and drive business processes, nigh often using web technologies (The National B2B Centre Limited, uncharted date). E-business has been murder on Internet and the society since many years. It is a in the altogether presidency agency for companies and quite a little do business today. The integration of a partnerships activities is establish with e-business including products, procedures, service. It exist many business model on the Web as e-m all told, portal, sells, communities of interest or repute chain service provider (McKeown, 2003, scalawag 220).The mean of this article will descriptive and analyse the realising the bring ins of Strategy Information System ( babe) through an on-line business as eBay Inc. In 1995, Pierre Omidyar has created auction off on-line for customer-to-customer and business-to-consumer (Hsiao, unknown date). Today, the worldwide is auction leader. There is a hundreds of millions of buyers and sellers that impute all day. The undertaking is going from strength to strength. In 2009, the receipts of brass exceeds more 8 one thousand thousand dollars (Jain, 2009, page 5). The article concludes with the examining of impact of g everyplacenment policy it.Strategy Information System (SIS)SIS adoptingSIS as a strategical IS/IT or matched randomness systems, represents a extreme refocusing of the IS activities away from the previous back room attitudes towards the market bottom in which the organisation works (Pritam, 2010,Chapiter 2).The objective of SIS provide growth efficiency the process alter existing information flows and operations that constitutes a sustainable and significant competitive edge (PEPPARD, 1993, page 13).Why they adopting SIS?C ompanies persona SIS in order to try to do dislodge the industry structure and thereby to disturb the competitive forces in a market. It enables to give a last note service, creates new product and providence greet thereby to obtain business competitive usefulness oer their competition (PEPPARD, 1993, page 13).SIS for competitive favorThe competitive returns helps the company to maintain their efficiency and strategic mark thereby lessening a competitive disadvantage and meet another(prenominal) strategic endeavor objectives (Phillips, 2005). Porter defined competitive advantage as growing fundamentally out of the value a firm is able to create for its buyers (Peppard, 1993, Chapter 3, page 54).Innovation strategyImplement electronic commerce is need strategies to replication these threats for companies. They should emphasize innovation, because innovation is the one thing that is most difficult for other companies to imitate (McKeown, 2003, page 235). It is a new serv ice including a new way to do business buy and sell real-time.EBay develop funny auction markets with the assistance of IS, it is a disruptive technology for shop locally. auction of principle is the buyers enter competitive bids and sellers enter competitive offers at the identical time. The price a stock is traded represents the highest price that a buyer is ordain to give birth and the lowest price that a seller is willing to sell(Investopedia, unknown date).With Internet, the buyers can to introduce and sell more easily their product and restrain large customer contrary auction classic. The sellers can know the in style(p) news and information from all almost the world in nevertheless a blink of time by access to internet (MengHan, 2007). state can start a business or to get relinquish of thing through eBays web locate. Internet constitutes a gain time. One of benefit of SIS is the eBay havent got inventory and saving cost. Moreover, it is the first on-line auction tha t constitutes an advantage on market.Differentiation through better servicesIn 2002, revenues of company decreased following an incident that loss of confidence between buyers and sellers. To compensate this eBay created a system that enables customers to rate their sellers. This step helped to improve consumer comfort, which is a rudimentary factor in e-procurement strategies (Troy, 2010).The system of eBay is strong, company use Greenplum to manage one kind of data (DBMS, 2009).EBay develop many services, softw be package and tools for customers need and delivering value and solution to problemSkype an Internet communication offering, allowing people everywhere to put one over unlimited voice and video communication for free between the users of Skype softw are (eBay, unknown date).PayPal it is system that facilitates the accomplishment and protective covering. EBay acquires an acquisition price of $1.5 billion. It is enables any soul or business with an email address to securely, easily and quickly come out and receive payments online. PayPals service builds on the existing financial radix of shore accounts and credit cards and uses the worlds most advanced proprietary fraud prevention systems to create a safe payment solution. (eBay, unknown date)Software begeter outfit (SDK) is an application for the eBay API.Application Programmers Interface (API) is an active member of the eBay Developers program, offers eBay certified solutions to automate listing lifecycle processes. (Intechnic company, unknown date)The benefits of eBay Integration is integration of the eBay API will increase your revenue while decreasing operating expenses, improving the efficiency and cost forte of your eBay operations in all phases of the listing lifecycle. Furthermore, eBay API integration can alike be used to quickly retrieve large amounts of information more or less other listings on eBay which can be automatically processed, analyzed, and presented to you in a report from which you can use to identify income opportunities. There is a armament of additional applications and advantages of eBay API Integration and Intechnic Corporation can create a modular, ascendable solution tailored to your companys needs and goals. (Intechnic company, unknown date)EBay Tools as solutions to improve the use of eBay developing with Java and J2EE which simplify the get and marketing process by providing functionality for listing multiple items, creating templates for repeated use, inventory centering, sales and account management, email tools, and financial reporting. (Chen, 2005)Solution for buyers via eBays website that are payment as e-learning (figure 2).Community around customer services as show Illustration 2. eBay strives to provide high quality customer service, with the help of many different technologies to provide online support, such(prenominal) as chat rooms, discussion boards, and frequently asked questions. (Chen, 2005)Every year, eBay improve the quality and customer service in developing or design tools and architecture. This feeling links other strategy that is customer-orientation strategy. The benefits are a available all time to support customers and a detailed customer service information can cut down on phone calls to the company.Cost lead strategyThe firm offer the services at the lowest cost in the industry. Indeed, eBay offer to buyers and sellers to doing business on Internet with a sensual presence in the exchange is now no longer necessary. They dont pay to be present or transport. So, eBay provides virtual space and computer software tools and drop their cost for people. (Hemmatfar, 2010)About eBay, there are not inventory since its customers submit the product thereby reducing their cost without logistics and supply.Growth strategy externalisation and accessibleThe base of business is founded by technology that have a lot of advantage and successful as Internet connecting all the people of t he world very closely (MengHan, 2007), so technology facilitates the function of auction market.EBay Marketplace has a powerful online platform for the sale of exhaustivelys and services and offers localized sites in the following markets as Asia Pacific, Europe, North the States and Latin America (eBay, unknown date).In addition, the eBays pages are translated many languages as English, French, Spanish or Chinese that allows to be externalisation and accessible for many countries.Appropriate strategic alliancesThe firm establishes new business linkages and alliances with suppliers, customer, other companies or competitors for develop and make out their high software and services.Higher architectureThe eBay infrastructure is compound a fifteen thousand servers. This environment is a software-as-a-service. New features are deployed every two weeks to both core and international platforms. Starting with C++ and paltry to Java, XML, and HTML, in half an hour and deploy it automatic ally to QA or map it to production. Strong hopes to accelerate development to a monthly, rather than quarterly, cadence. Managing a rapidly-evolving infrastructure to minimize the latency of process that end users, both buyers and sellers, experience is an nonchalant reality (MacFarland, 1996).For example, with the design a new architectural with Java technology and MSXML eBay have many benefits are a new architecture expect to handle growth in transaction volumes and increased number of registered users over the next 5 years and beyond-learning to eBay become a $3 billion dollar company. More than 25% architectural framework and design reprocess helping to significantly speed development cycle. Moreover, perceptible improvement in application performance-faster, more efficient page loads and responses. (Marshak, 2003)EBays keeping the site up and running. In 1999, eBay was galvanized when a catastrophic systems failure blacked out the intact auction site for 22 hours. The compa ny lost millions in transaction fees and billions in market value as investors dumped shares. Two results of the Big split up remain paramount to this day first, eBays realization that remaining up on a 24/7 basis is a mission-critical business autocratic and second, the hiring of Maynard Webb as CIO. Every analyst consulted for this story acknowledged Webbs crucial fiber in eBays evolution. (Hill, 2003)E-business strategies for value chainInternet value chain helps eBay to how use Internet in a company strategically (Figure 3)Impact of disposal policyIt is a set of responsibilities and practices exercised by the board and executive management with the primary purpose of providing strategic intent, or direction, ensuring that corporate objectives are achieved, ascertaining that risks are managed appropriately and verifying that the enterprises resources are used responsibly. This provides a degree of protective cover to the organization, its customers, suppliers and stakeholder s (Chita, 2010)The company has developed a set of community policy in order to consistent and safe employment in the Internet found market. Every year, eBay constantly conducts reviews of its policies and user agreement and makes changes and adjustments. Some of the updates are routine and some of them are necessary due to information system issues. For example, in 2001, when the company had discovered a bug in its registration procedure, it determine the personalized settings for over 6 million of its customers. (Chen, 2005)In terms of consumer protection, eBay maintain we treat your information as an asset that must(prenominal) be protected and we use numerous tools (encryption, passwords, physical security, etc.) to protect your personal information against illegitimate access and disclosure. However, as you probably know, third parties may unlawfully pester or access transmissions or esoteric communications, and other users may call or misuse your personal informatio n that they collect from the Site. Therefore, although we work very hard to protect your privacy, we do not promise, and you should not expect, that your personal information or private communications will always remain private (eBay, 2007). For example, eBay changed its policies about some JavaScript functions used in online auctions for security purposes and has PayPal Purchase as discussed above. (Chen, 2005)Moreover, eBay requires that all users be at least 18 years of age. The solid ground behind this policy is that in the past underage bidders have rigid bids on items that they never intended to purchase, and as minors they cannot be held de jure responsible. (Chen, 2005)Much investment to avoid a financial loss of data if there is disaster. The system must be strong, reliable and efficient. For example, a security incident would reveal PayPal accounts from users. The firm must to use a methodological analysis as Control Objectives for Information and related Technology (CO BIT). It is a good year framework strategy to help organization Maintain and Develop a standard system of IT governance (GOESSLER, unknown date).The model is have-to doe with on the client. The structure of employees is dedicated to customer service. The company is headed by the sellers and buyers. They are involved in the transaction. EBay plays a role as an informant and must have to find solutions to meet customer needs, adapting to customers. For example, eBay created a system to quantify the actors to help sellers and buyers achieve recognition as good sellers those who deliver in spite of appearance the agreed-upon time frame or good buyers those Who Pay for Their order (Zara, 2008). Furthermore, it allows wise(p) the status and other details as you can see in Figure 4. This system reassures them whether it is a buyer or seller or not reliable. The notation is made from the two previous players of the transactions.ConclusionStrategy information system gives to companies an opportunity to have a gain advantage and other benefits that improve their system, process and services as eBay case. The creating a competitive advantage results comes alignment strategy organizational information systems. Indeed, IS are inescapably associated with government policy, because they have an influence on access to a primordial resource information. The concept comes in. The government companies must comply. eBay has tried to avoid policing its site for activities that violate local rules and instead has chosen to issue disclaimers and rely totally on its sellers to abide by local rules (Daniel, unknown date).Company must to assurer security of system en permanence as authenticating users, authorizing access, and enforcing security features or security process payment. In this eBays case, is in developing and improving software and digital infrastructure tools that lead to the creation of a safe, secure, information-rich on-line trading community. The companys stra tegy is to allow users to innovate using the tools that it provides, regardless of what they are buying or selling or where they are buying or selling it (Daniel, unknown date). So, good strategies ISs have contributed to eBays long lasting, success and enhance the position of leader in the global market.

Rational Choice and Deterrence Theory

judicious pick and Deterrence TheorySince Marchese Beccaria who, as unrivaled of the first menti angiotensin converting enzymed that the real purpose of punishment is is no other than to clog the vile from doing further injury to society, and prevent others from committing the like offense (Baccaria 1764), several(prenominal)(prenominal) researchers as well as general community have begun to concenter on the notion of somebodyal choice when explaining what pushes offenders to commit horrors. keen-sighted pickax Theory became one of the or so popular impressions which reserve the deterrence philosophy. Although, the tie beam between those two theories was welcomed by more, it in any case had its critiques and opponents. In this paper, I provide explain how and to what degree, sensible choice Theory supports the image of deterrence. I leave alone also discuss roughly of the contradictory theories and criminal behaviors that do not support Rational prime(prenom inal) Theory and state my opinion on consequences that this study may embrace on flagitious idea concept which is, according to the criminal fairness, one of the necessary elements of the aversion.The concept of Rational filling Theory is rooted in the analysis of tender behavior that was completed by Italian scholar named Marchese Beccaria. The main point of his examination describes the human being as a rational number put to workor who calculates rationality development ends and means assortmentula. concord to Beccaria People (freely) choose all behavior, twain conform and deviate, based on their rational calculations, the central element of calculation involves a cost benefit analysis Pleasure versus Pain, (Beccaria 1764). In his line of reasoning, Beccaria set(p) that in night club to prevent the criminal or wrongdoing behavior, the form of punishment equivalent to the severity of evil committed should be implemented. The concept of punishing criminals in a ccordance to the crime they have committed in order not only to prevent the criminal from committing the similar act in the future(special deterrence), but also to warn the general open of the thinkable consequences of such(prenominal) behavior(general deterrence), became known as Deterrence Theory. In todays world of criminal honourableice, it is calm down seen as one of the most important aspect in the whole idea of punishment.Due to the failure of rehabilitative theories and major step-up in crime rates in 1970s and 1980s, the concept of free, rational choice, based on the calculation of cost and benefits began to interest criminologist and researchers across the country. examen of illegal decision making lick began to be perceived as the key to down the stairsstanding the real purpose of crime and what motivates it. During those years, Modern Rational Choice Theory emerged. Contemporary criminologist began to rely on the idea which claimed that brat of punishment guide s to deter the somebody from wrongdoing just as rewards tend to encourage pleasing behavior. Beca social occasion of this new trend of thinking, more laws that improverd authorisation sentences for numerous crimes, mainly those drug-related have been passed and executed. Did wide utilisation of deterrence as the tool of discouraging pile from committing crimes accomplished its initial goal? The dish protrude is double sided. Violent crime rates began to indeed, drop in mid-1990s as well as did drug offences. It was however, also due to changes in many other aspects like increase police recruitment across the country, good enough economic prosperity that discourages criminal behavior as well as change in noeticity of people that had been subjects to violent behaviors. On the veto side, because of the fact that needed sentences for non-violent, drug related offences were increased significantly, the prison creation also augmented significantly burdening the pockets of taxp ayers. As this happened, more and more researchers began to strike hard the method of punishment supported by Rational Choice Theory.Does disquietude of serious punishment truly discourage criminals from committing crimes? Wasnt it only the philosophy of Rational Choice Theory of punishment that put the concept of deterrence in such an advantaged position in our criminal justice system and which steady has such a massive impact on current crime control policy? Without any doubt, the strong data links between these two makes both theories stand out and wait actually balanced and reasonable. However, as the foiling caused by some of the negative effects of their usage increased, contradictory theories began to emerge. Moreover, some criminal behaviors such as rapes and even in some cases, send offs seem not to be positively unnatural by increased punishment as the form of deterrence for these crimes.Rational Choice Theory differs from many other criminal theories mainly bec ause of its main principal that defines crime as a solely individual choice. The concept does not focus on other, crucial factors like individual traits, criminal associations and midland strains that may also play a huge usage in pushing an individual to committing certain crimes. One of the most known models that oppose the Rational Choice Theory is Classical Theory introduced by Clarke and Cornish. Both authors agree that, dapple committing the crime, people are not perfectly rational and in some cases they are completely unreasonable. Moreover, they touch upon the costs and benefits of crime very broadly speaking including only official and unperturbed permissions. According to their views, A range of factors model and individuals estimates of costs and benefits of crime self-control, moral beliefs, strains, emotional state, association with delinquent peers.(Clarke and Cornish, 1986). In addition, many researchers have also found that the severity of punishment is furthe st less important for potential criminal as oppose to deduction of that punishment. Some extreme opponents of Rational Choice Theory even bank that, People are not unremarkably aware of certainty and severity of punishment for the area in which they live, therefore increasing certainty of punishment may reduce crime, but the effect volition be transeunt and localized.(Class PPT). This opinion creates another argument which indeed questions and doubts the entire purpose of severe punishment as a successful method of deterrence and it is sound to a large extent. Besides the theoretical aspects that oppose the Rational Choice Theory, there are many practical ones that are against it as well.According to numerous scholars, individuals are much less apt(predicate) to be affected by initial benefits of certain crime when they are intoxicated or mentally disturbed. Many people that commit crime are very low in self-control and very much perceive the crime as simply not wrong. These individual however, are more seeming to be discouraged from doing something illegal by the threat of punishment. Another study mention that, the more severe the punishment is for a certain crime, the less likely it is for jury to execute a specific sentence therefore it seems that as severity of the crime increases, certainty of harsh sentence decreases. If one would insufficiency to push the rational choice model to its extent, he or she may even argue that more severe and direct the punishment for the crime is in combination with negative experiences with law enforcement may actually increase the likelihood of subsequent crime.In todays world, where the access to illegal substances and alcohol is silence fairly easy and domestic violent rates are still high, one could assume, without a big doubt, that offenders often commit crimes on an impulse, speckle intoxicated or under some emotional or mental pressure caused by, for example bad financial situation or difficult, inner f amily condition. What many call crime overload is certainly another problem. As crime rates increase, police forces are strained and the certainty of come-at-able arrest decreases. As crime rates decline, police activity usually strengthens and certainty of arrest increases. The fundamental apparatus is what should be examined here. Does certainty of possible arrest daunts individual from committing a crime or does the small direct of crime increase certainty?According to researchers like Marcus Felson, Stephan Pfohl and Alan Liska, some crimes and deviant behaviors, especially those considered large(p) offences like clear up or rape with additional bodily harm are not affected by more severe punishment. The above mentioned scholars argue that capital punishment shows that anticipated, overall confirmation effect may not be inclose. As Pfohl claims, There appears to be little, if any, difference in rates of capital offenses between states which impose the expiry penalty and those that do not. In fact, an inverse correlation has been documented when states supplant the wipeout penalty a corresponding drop in capital crimes is reported (Pfohl, , 1994). Finally, issue regarding the effectiveness of deterrent policies and particularly the suitability of incapacitation and penalize bring up moral and official worries. How far do we really want to go in punishing criminals? Is incapacitation the most concrete use of common capitals? Looking at the widespread understanding among criminologists that considers aging out as one of the most important elements of crime process, increasing mandatory sentences for all crimes that are believed to have been committed by perfectly rational individuals who have accurately weighted out all the costs and benefits of the crime they wished to commit, the incapacitation alone seems merely impractical. Without proper rehabilitation these individuals are very likely to commit these crimes again in the future.Great example of the modern use of punishment in accordance with Rational Choice Theory is present in the files from Atkins vs. Virginia Court Case that took place in the year 2000. disrespect the fact that Atkins was diagnosed as mildly-retarded with a full IQ of 59, he was sentenced to death for committing crimes of armed robbery and murder. The case was particularly controversial because many believed that under 8th amendment which prohibits Cruel Punishment, Atkins shouldnt be sentenced to death but rather to farsighted imprisonment. After the verdict was released, many scholars, lawyers and policy makers began to ask themselves what is the real role of 8th amendment after all? It seemed as in our country, pressure of public opinion and swiftness of prosecutors may push some cases above the coercive law of our land.I believe that the criminal research that evaluates the deterrence with the connection to the Rational Choice Theory may hold many consequences for one of the most important and valued standards in criminal law-mens rea, or in other words guilty mind. The main concept of guilty mind standard requires that a person cannot be convicted of a crime unless that person intended to commit that crime. Unfortunately, when looking at the case described above, I am wretched to admit that mens rea isnt always executed and respected. The study assessed in this paper, proves that a big portion of all crimes is committed by individuals that arent fully aware of their actions, as in the case when they are intoxicated or under tremendous mental strain. Moreover, many mentally disturbed and/or retarded criminals, even though conscious about the fact that they are taking part in criminal act, are often influenced by others who are often brains of entire process of wrongdoing. Atkins involvement in the murder for which he was sentenced to death is a great example of such situation.The flyer of someones guilt is perhaps the most important factor in determine the appropriate sentence for crime that has been committed. How do we nib someones guilt? It is the indorsement that the principal of mens rea comes into play. Mens rea represents the amount of intend that an individual had while committing his offence. If we took Rational Choice Theory and traditional Mens rea concept and combine them together, we would get one of the most sophisticated and perfectly formulated theories that deal with understanding of criminal behavior. It could be written as follows, Since the criminal is a perfectly rational human being who, while committing the crime is fully aware of what he/she is doing and decides that benefits that will come from the crime outweigh the costs associated with punishment for this crime, than this person is guilty without the smallest doubt, intend is 100% in all the cases. As much as I would wish this theory was correct, it only reflects a utopian inhalation in which all crimes and consequential punishments for them are perfectly clear and comprehensible. earthly concern however, is totally different and much more complex. To understand the importance of theories such as Rational Choice Theory one must often think outside the box. While the theory itself is quiet practical and compelling, without taking into consideration other aspects of crime and criminal behavior mentioned earlier in this paper, it becomes completely useless and invalid.It is because of the principal of mens rea that we need so many people in our courtrooms today, beginning with prosecutors, judges and jury, ending with psychologist, forensic scientists and psychiatrists in order to solve cases, especially those that involve murder. It is often very difficult to measure someones guilt and intend to commit such offence as murder looking solely on the crime itself and basing the explanation for it on Rational Choice Theory. Concurring with other critiques of the Rational Choice Theory I believe that the theory alone is quite misleading and all thos e who support it fully should consider studying it with comparison to mens rea or compare it to other counter theories like Classical Theory. If we want to respect principals of our criminal law which mens rea is a great example of, we should definitely stop the ongoing process of generalization and simplification of our legal norms and standards and apply and more ethical and just standards of practicing law in our courtrooms.

Sense of Community Among University Students | Research

Sense of society Among University Students ResearchThe pack is mainly aimed at identifying level of aesthesis datum of club among students who enrolled in the psychology and well-disposed work political programs at Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu. It was in addition carried proscribed to investigate whether there were bloods amid a sense of confederacy and altruistic behaviour, academic achieve workforcet, board, and students involvement in club or organizational activities. One hundred and fifty atomic number 53 students participated in this study. A questionnaire that comprised of one-third sections was adapted and further developed to neb the schools sense of connection, altruistic behaviour scale, and demographic background of the sample. In this study, constituentship, work on, desegregation and fulfillment of considers, and sh ard emotional connection as proposed by McMillan and Chavis (1986) argon the subscales for the measurement of sense of partnership. Rushtons (1981) Self-Report Altruism Scale (SRAS) was riding habitd to measure altruistic behaviour. Furthermore, the study attempted to compare the level of sense of fellowship of interests surrounded by programmes, gender, ethnicity, and yr of study. eon was the barely variable prepare to be correspond with a sense of partnership of interests. in that location was no difference found surrounded by any of those variables studied.INTRODUCTIONThe aim of this research was to analyse the university students sense of community, or their wisdom towards their school community, which foc utilise on issues pertaining to how such(prenominal) the students perceive the amaze amidst them and the school and its surroundings. Further, the study aimed at identifying whether or non their intuition matchd with altruistic behaviour.The concept of a sense of community as popularly cited in the literature stemmed from Saransons (1974) idea concerning the perception of coincidence to another(prenominal)s, an acknowledged interdependence with others, a willingness to maintain this interdependence by vainglorious to or doing for others what superstar expects from them, the feeling that peerless is part of a big dependable and stable structure. Saranson (p. 157) further adds that the psychological sense of community is one of the major basis of self- comment. Charvat (2004) states that a sense of community is a multifactorial phenomenon because of the fact that the definitions vary from one individual to the next, and from measure to time. For example, the Child suppuration Project at the Development Studies C place down in Oakland has defined a sense of community as the students experience of being a cute influential member of a bear uponing committed to everyones growth and offbeat (Schaps, 1998). This concept has been spread out into theories. Among them, McMillan and Chaviss (1986) is so far the most prominent and submit been ap plied by most researchers. McMillan and Chavis (1986) define a sense of community as. . . a feeling of belong, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the multitude, and a shared faith that members needs will be met through their commitment to be together . . . (in Dalton et al., 2001, p.193)McMillan and Chavis (1986) proposed that a sense of community is comprised of four elements membership, influence, integration and fulfillment of needs, and shared emotional connection. Further explanations on for each one element are as followsMembershipThere are five attributes in the dimension of membership, i.e., boundaries, emotional safety, sense of belonging and appointment with the community, common emblem system, and personal investment. Boundaries refer to the necessity of defining the qualities, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as members way of dressing, language, and rituals, and even shared goals, that include and exclude non-members. Hence, boundaries are not necessar ily clearly or obscurely marked, but the definition can be loose or rigid depending on the communitys need to protect its intimate social connection (Wright, 2004). Emotional safety refers to the feelings of protection which may involve self-disclosure and group acceptance (Dalton et al., 2001). A sense of belonging and identification with the community looks at the acceptance of being a member of the community. A common symbol system helpers to define or auspicate membership boundaries and to strengthen the sense of integration among members that could be physically head or seen, much(prenominal) as wearing the same logo-printed shirts. A symbol is very significant to a community as Nisbet and Perrin (1977, p. 47) quote, . . . the symbol is the solution of the social world . . ., which carries the identity of the particular group. Meanwhile, personal investment relates to the semipermanent commitment to a community, such as devotion of time to activities exercise by the al umni of a varsity.InfluenceAccording to McMillan and Chavis (1986), influence refers to mutuality of influence in group. This is explicateed by the bi-directional relationships in a community, whereby members of a group mustiness feel empowered to present influence over what a group does, and group gummyness depends upon the group having some influence over its members (Wright, 2004). However, those who on the face of it try to dominate the group are often isolated, and the more cohesive the group is, the greater is its pressure for conformity.Integration and fulfillment of needsMcMillan and Chavis (1986) explain this dimension in twain related concepts shared values and full-blooded of needs, and exchange of resources. Members share values which lam to facilitate their interactions and their ability to meet each others needs simultaneously (Charvat, 2004). Needs are not only understood as survival and the likes, but in any case include what is coveted and valued in a part icular community (Dalton et al., 2001).Shared emotional connectionThis element is also explained by the existence of a phantasmal bond that is based on a shared history among members of the community which could be in the form of behaviour, speech, or any other cues that may not be related to behaviour. McMillan and Chavis (1986, p. 14) summarised shared emotional connection as, the definitive element for the true community.Past studies become shown that having a sense of community has brought several substantiating outcomes, especially to the community members involved. Positive subjective perception of well-being and participatory problem-solving are among the positive outcomes (Davidson Cotter, 1993 Chavis Wandersman, 1990). Empirical studies on a schools sense of community have brought significant impact to students academic operation and social development (Charvat, 2004). The students experience of school as a community was found to be associated with prosocial behaviors , including concern for others, altruistic behaviour, and positive interpersonal behaviour, as well as democratic values, skill, and desire, and achievement motivation (Battistich, 2001 Schaps Lewis, 1999).From a followup of 15 years of research in elementary schools, Charvat (2004) found positive correlations between a schools sense of community and good outcomes for both students and teachers. He added that students who feel a strong school sense of community tend to have more positive attitudes towards school and learning higher educational aspirations, greater trust in and respect for teachers, more prosocial attitude and break social skills. This is also related to teacher attitudes and the perception of school climate.These findings were kindred to that of Solomon et al.s (2000) which suggested that teacher practices that emphasizes prosocial values, elicitation of student thinking and expression of ideas, encouragement of cooperation, rapture and supportiveness, and red uced use of extrinsic control, were related to student classroom behaviour. much(prenominal) behaviour includes engagement, influence, and positive behaviour, which, in turn, were related to students sense of community (see also Schulte et al., 2003).Research on a sense of community has also been expanded to include a broad range of demographic characteristics. It was reported that a schools sense of community was associated with those who live in the campus, among students in private schools, those out of state, seniors, and females (Lounsbury DeNeui, 1995). Other findings reported that the people who came from small-sized campus and suburban area feel a stronger sense of community. In a more recent study, Fraering and Minor (2006) for example, have found that there was a positive relationship between age and a perceived sense of community among customers of financial services firms, and men perceive a greater sense of community than women.Research addressing such issues on a sen se of community in Malaysia is still at its infancy. Measuring unity among ethnic groups in Malaysia and efforts in building up as well as promoting national identity perhaps are among studies that the authors can recall to have some connections to the study of sense of community. looking for at how important a sense of community can be in promoting students well being and development, prompted the undertaking of this research project. For a start, the authors use the sample from their school.Objectives of ResearchTo identify the sense of community by unhomogeneous socio-demographic background.To identify the correlation between frequency of students involvement in clubs or organization run at school level such as academic achievement, age, and altruistic behaviour.Hypotheses1. There is significant difference between sense of community with ethnic group, type of programme, and years of study.2. There is significant relationship between sense of community with age group, involvemen t in school, academic achievement, and altruistic behaviour.METHODOLOGYSubjectsOne hundred and fifty one students from the instill of Psychology and mixer Work participated in the study. They were picked at random from each programme that comprised of 52 juniors, 61 sophomores, and 38 seniors.Design, Tools, and MeasurementThe study was intentional in survey form. A set of questionnaires comprising of 3 sections was developed and adapted from original sources. Section A measures socio-demographic variables, Section B measures Sense of Community Scale (SOCS) which was adapted from McMillan and Chavis (1986). There are four subscales measured in SOCS as proposed by McMillan and Chavis (1986). While to measure altruistic behaviour in Section C, Rushtons (1981) Self-Report Altruism Scale (SRAS) was used. For SOCS, 40 items were developed, while SRAS contained 20 items. both scales were measured through a four- and five-point Likert scales. Cronbach Alpha for both scales ranged between 0.82 and 0.89, indicating that they were extremely reliable to be used in the circumstance of this study. In toll of validity, subscales of SOCS significantly correlate to one another and to the whole scale. As for SRAS, it was used before by local researchers in a similar context of this study, and it was found to be valid.ProcedureQuestionnaires were administered to the subjects who were picked randomly from each programme with the help of fellow lecturers. They were allowed 15 to 20 minutes to answer the questionnaires.Data epitomeTo test the hypotheses, data were then analysed by one-way ANOVA and Pearsons correlation. descriptive statistics were applied to see the distribution of the sample.RESULTSBackground of sampleDescriptive analyses indicated 67 males and 84 females participated in the study that comprised of 34.4 percentage of first year students, 40.4 percent second year students, and 25.2 percent third year students. A earn of 23.2 percent of them enrolled in t he programme for early days and Community Development, 20.5 percent in Industry and Organizational Psychology, 13.9 percent in Counseling Psychology, 19.2 percent in Child and Family Psychology, and 23.2 percent in Social Work Programme. The mean age of the subjects was 22.01 years. More than 60 percent identified themselves as Malay, 9.9 percent Chinese, 11.9 percent Kadazandusun, 4.6 percent Bajau and Pribumi of Sarawak respectively, and others, 5.3 percent. More than half of the subjects were members of clubs and organizations that were based in the campus, with about 40 percent holding position as committee members of the organizations or clubs. virtually 80 percent have been involved at least two times in activities run by the School. Most of the students stayed in hostels in the campus. In terms of academic achievement, the subjects can be categorized into three groups. A total of 22 percent are high achievers (with CGPA score of 3.00 and above), 57.3 percent moderate, and 2 0.7 percent low achievers. The mean score of SOCS was 120.09, indicating the subjects were in the folk of moderately high. Table 1 presents some of the socio-demographic data of the samples.Hypotheses Testing ResultsThe Pearson intersection point moment correlation analyses showed no significant inter-correlation between a sense of community, altruism, involvement in school or programme activities, and academic achievement. Age was the only variable correlated significantly with a sense of community (r = 0.23, pMeanwhile, further analyses showed that there were no differences in the sense of community according to students year of study, type of programme, and ethnicity. Table 3 summarises the result of one-way ANOVA, while t-test analyses indicated that female and male subjects did not differ in a sense of community.Table 1 Socio-demographic background of the subjects__________________________________________________________________Variables N %___________________________________ ___________________________________Gender potent 67 44.4Female 84 55.6EthnicityMalay 95 62.9Chinese 12 7.9Kadazandusun 18 11.9Bajau 7 4.6Pribumi of Sarawak 4 2.6India 7 4.6Others 8 5.3Types of programmeYouth and Community Development 35 23.2Industry and Organisation Psychology 31 20.5Counseling Psychology 21 13.9Child and Family Psychology 29 19.2Social Work 35 23.2Year of study1 52 34.42 61 40.43 38 25.2______________________________________________________________________Table 2 Correlation results between academic achievement, year of study, age, and involvement in school or programme activities, altruism, and sense of community______________________________________________________________________Sense of community (r value) __________________________________________________________Altruism .08Academic achievement .14Age 0.23*Involvement in school activities 0.10______________________________________________________________________*pTable 3 Mean differences in sense of community in terms of ethnicity, types of programme, and year of study______________________________________________________________________Variables Sum of Squares Mean of Square df F Sig.______________________________________________________________________EthnicityBetween group 2520.82 420.14 6 0.51 0.80Within group 95723.20 818.15 117Types of programmeBetween group 699.40 174.85 4 1.23 0.30Within group 15059.52 142.07 106Year of studyBetween group 703.26 351.63 2 2.52 0.09Within group 15055.66 139.40 108______________________________________________________________________DISCUSSIONThe findings showed that there was no difference in the sense of community between year of study, ethnicity, and type of programme. It was also found that students involvement in clubs or organizations, academic achievement, and altruism did not correlate with a sense of community. These results contradicted previous findings. The mean for SOCS was in moderately high group, suggesting that it was not strong en ough to have connections to other possible phenomena, such as in this case, the academic achievement and altruistic behaviour, as much as for the socio-demographic variables to have some impact on differences of mean in SOCS. In other words, these findings indicated that the students sense of community could be promoted by other socio-demographic factors that were not studied here.Only age was found to be correlated with a sense of community. The older the students are, the more they felt attached to the school. onetime(a) students commonly consisted of those who have faced difficulties in getting a place in a higher learning institution. They might have worked for a while and have experienced repeating national school examinations (referring to the Malayan Certificate of Education and Higher School Certificate) and competed with other candidates who might have much better grades than they had to enter the university. Once they have the opportunity to enter university, they will make use of it and gain as much prefer as possible to enhance their academic and social development. These students are normally selected or elected as leaders, or at least rail part seriously in school clubs or organizations, which inevitably make for to the building of the schools sense of community.This study was only a beginning for the authors to reckon the nature or level of sense of community among their own students. There are several limitations to this study. The results are applicable only to this sample. Hence, the findings are not expected to be generalized. Future studies are warranted to extend the findings to a large scale, and to students in different disciplines. Secondly, this study only examined the relationship between a sense of community and altruistic behaviour, and differences among a few socio-demographic variables. For future studies, the authors also suggested that researchers examine causal relationship between variables. Perhaps, a longitudinal stu dy could also be conducted to determine whether a sense of community is associated with time change. More studies are still needed to understand this phenomenon better, as community is not stagnant, and will always evolve.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTA preliminary drawing of this paper was edited by Fadzilah Majid Cooke of the School of Social Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah.

Costa Rica Essays -- Descriptive Essay About A Place

rib RicaCosta Rica has a culture and landscape, along with other(a) intriguing aspects, that would make approximately anyone indigence to visit there. I had etern eithery wanted to go out of the country, so my fri depot Doug and I resolved that Costa Rica was the define to be. This Spanish speaking paradise lies between Mexico and southeastward America. The entire country is practically surrounded by water with the Caribbean ocean on one side and the Pacific Ocean on the other. free to say, there was a lot more in Costa Rica than a beautiful view.To make sure everything would be buzz offn care of we enlisted the serve of a travel agent. She setup a week long pass at a resort for $680(Flight and Room). A four-hour drive from Knoxville to Atlanta and a five-hour flight on Allegro Air brought us to our destination. We arrived in Costa Rica late in the afternoon at a tiny airstrip in the rural town of Liberia. A bus picked us up from the airport and took us to the resort whic h was two-hours away. We could have rented a car still the bus was included with the resort. As soon as we got into town I could declare that the culture of this country was going to be extremely contrary from what I was used to.The culture of Costa Rica was like none I had ever seen. Their national motto is Pura Vida which means Pure Life, and these people take this to heart. Everyone I met was so laid back and relaxed that Doug and I fit decline in. For example, the people at the resort were so friendly that the bartender Edgardo and I became good friends. He would teach me some Spanish and I would tell him about where I lived. Another thing about the culture is that almost everyone can speak some English, but it is still difficult to communicate. I was surprised how much Spani... ...the week the owner knew us by name. take down the resort had reasonably priced food, and I am convinced that our resort do the best cheeseburger on the face of the planet ($3). The El Tamarindo was the largest place to stay, but there were a variety of hotels to choose from, including a better(p) Western. Costa Rica had a magic that could be found almost nowhere else in the world. While I was there I met so many an(prenominal) people and had many experiences that I will never forget. At the end of the week it was hard to say good-bye. While waiting for the bus all the people from the resort came to see us off, even the owner of the El Delphin came to say good-bye. That is why Costa Rica will always have a place in my heart. With the culture and good humor of the locals, and the beautiful landscape, I can almost guarantee that anyone who visits Costa Rica will never want to leave.